Main challenges against peace and stability in the Black Sea: COVID-19, energy security, and geopolitics

Abstract

Shipping, which refers to cargo transportation via ships, is the primary method for international goods delivery. According to statistics from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and World Economic Forum (2024), over 90 % of global trade is 9 conducted by sea due to shipping’s cost-effectiveness and safety. Notably, crude oil and its products are among the most critical commodities traded worldwide. Oil moves from extraction sites to refineries and onto the ports of consuming countries.